Naish languages

Naish
Geographic
distribution		Yunnan and Sichuan
Linguistic classificationSino-Tibetan
Proto-languageProto-Naish
Subdivisions
Language codes
Glottolognais1236

The Naish languages are a low-level subgroup of Sino-Tibetan languages that include Naxi, Na (Mosuo), and Laze.

Classification

The Naish languages are:

In turn, Naish together with Namuyi and Shixing constitutes the Naic subgroup within Sino-Tibetan.

Arguments for relatedness include irregular morphotonology: tone patterns of numeral-plus-classifier phrases that constitute shared structural properties. Since these similarities are phonetically nontransparent, they cannot be due to borrowing.[1]

Names

Note that in Mainland China, the term "Naxi" is commonly used for the entire language group, e.g. by the influential linguistic introduction by He and Jiang (2015).[2][3] The terms "Naish" and "Naic" are derived from the endonym Na used by speakers of several of the languages. These concepts were initially proposed by Guillaume Jacques & Alexis Michaud (2011).[4] Phylogenetic issues are summarized in the entry about the Naic subgroup. For a review of the literature about Naish languages, see Li (2015).[5]

Tentative Sino-Tibetan family tree proposed by Jacques & Michaud (2011)

Lexical innovations

Jacques & Michaud (2011) list the following words as Naish lexical innovations.

Gloss Naxi Na Laze Proto-Naish
to stumble pe˧ khɯ.piM *(S)pa
cloud ki˩ tɕi˧ tɕi˩sɯ˥ *ki
village hi˧mbe˧ fv̩.biL ɖɯ˧bie˧ *mba
Bai people le˧bv̩˧ ɬi.bv̩M *Sla
noble sɯ.phiM sɯ˩phie˩ *si pha
medicine
(2nd syllable) 		ʈʂhɚ˧ɯ˧ ʈʂhæ.ɯH tshɯ˧fi˧ *rtshi Swri

Reconstruction

Proto-Naish, the proto-language ancestral to the Naish languages, has been reconstructed by Jacques & Michaud (2011). Another reconstruction of Proto-Naish by Zihe Li is in progress; he has published articles detailing open-syllable rhymes,[6] laterals,[7] pre-initials,[8] and retroflex finals.[9]

Phoneme inventory

The Proto-Naish consonant inventory is as follows:

Proto-Naish consonants
Type Labial Coronal Dorsal Uvular
Nasals *m *n *ŋ
Stops voiceless *p *t *k *q
voiced *b *d *ɡ
aspirated *pʰ *tʰ *kʰ *qʰ
Fricatives *s *z
*ɕ *ɕʰ
Affricates *ts *tsʰ
*tɕ *tɕʰ
Liquids and glides *w *r *l *l̥ *j

The Proto-Naish vowel inventory is disputed; Jacques and Michaud reconstruct seven vowels /æ ɑ i ĩ o ɔ u/ (notated in their paper with ⟨*a *aC1 *i *iN *o *aC2 *u⟩ respectively). On the other hand, Li reconstructs a simple five-vowel system /a e i o u/.

According to Jacques and Michaud, Proto-Naish syllables are exclusively open syllables, not counting the /ĩ/ rhyme spelled by Jacques and Michaud as *iN. This situation came about due to a total loss of all pre-Naish coda consonants without a trace; pre-Naish vowels in closed syllables have identical outcomes to their open-syllable counterparts. However, Li believes that there are enough traces of the lost consonants to reconstruct a proto-Naish with closed syllables.

Reflexes of vowels

The reflexes of vowels depend heavily on the preceding consonant. Jacques and Michaud employ the following cover symbols:

  • K for velar stops
  • TS for affricates and sibilants
  • R for *r and clusters that result in retroflex consonants in attested Naish
  • S for *r or *s

Jacques & Michaud

The vowel reflexes in Naish as charted by Jacques and Michaud are as follows.

Naish reflexes of Proto-Naish vowels (Jacques and Michaud)
Vowel Preceding consonant(s) Naxi Na Laze
*æ K ɑ ɑ ɑ
TS e e e
*w ɯ i i
Velar + *w ɑ ɤ ɤ
R ɯ e ɯ
Elsewhere e i ie
*ɑ Everywhere ɑ ɑ ɑ
*ɔ Everywhere o o u
*i TS or R ɯ ɯ ɯ
*m i v̩ v̩
*kr ɯ ɯ i
Elsewhere i i i
*ĩ Any cluster with *r; ɕ ɚ æ æ
TS ɚ i i
*u TS ɯ i y
Labial stop + *r ɚ v̩ v̩
Elsewhere v̩ v̩ v̩
*o Everywhere u u u

Li

Li, who reconstructs only a five-vowel system /a e i o u/, charts the vowel reflexes as follows:

Naish reflexes of Proto-Naish vowels (Li)
Vowel Preceding consonant(s) Naxi Malimasa Na
*a K ɑ ɑ ɑ
TS e ɛ e
(C)w but not Pw or Kw ɯ ɯ i
Velar + *w ɑ ɑ ɤ
Labial + *w u ɑ o
R ɯ ɤ e
Preglottalized R u ɚ e
*mr- ɯ e i
Elsewhere e ɛ i
*e TS i ie i
K ɯ ɤ i
Cr ɚ ɚ a
*m i o v̩
*i nj or Kj i i i
*Kr ɯ i ɯ
Elsewhere ɯ ɯ ɯ
*o Cr ɚ o v̩
P v̩ o v̩
Elsewhere u u o
*u TS ɯ v̩ i
*ɕ and *j y u u
*m ɯ v̩ v̩
Elsewhere v̩ v̩ v̩

Li also provides reflexes of various closed syllables he reconstructs:[10]

Proto-Naish closed syllable reflexes
Rhyme Context Naxi Malimasa Na
-ak T- ɑ ɑ ɑ[a]
Kw-[b] ɑ ɑ ɤ
P- u ɑ o
r-[c] a a a
-aɣ T- o u o
Cw-[d] ɚ o a
Kr-, Cj- ɤ ɤ ɤ
Cr-[e] wɑ o wa
-eɣ[f] s- ɚ i i
-oɣ (anywhere) o o o
-at (anywhere) ɑ ɑ ɑ ~ a
-al P- ɤ ɑ ɤ
Ts- a wa wa
Retroflexes[g] wɑ wa wa
-el s- ɯ ɚ ɯ
(elsewhere) ɤ ɤ ɯ
-il (anywhere) ??? i o
-ul Retroflexes ɚ o ɻ̩
(elsewhere) ɯ o ɯ
-ap TS[h] y y i
(elsewhere) o u o
-am (anywhere) a a a
  1. ^ Occasionally [o].
  2. ^ Corresponds to Burmese wa after velars.
  3. ^ The *r- becomes /l/ in Malimasa but is deleted in Naxi and Na.
  4. ^ The *w- was lost in Naxi and Malimasa.
  5. ^ Where C is not a velar.
  6. ^ Other members of this rhyme group reconstructed by Li have special developments. He also reconstructs this rhyme for Naxi /ʈʂɚ˥/, Malimasa /tsɯ˩˧go˩˧/, and Na /ʈʂa˧˥/ (meaning "ankle"), and for Naxi /tɕɚ˧pɚ˩/, Malimasa /ie˧ʈʂu˧/ and Na /ʁa˧ʈv˥/ (meaning "neck").
  7. ^ This reflex also appears in Naxi /wa˧/, Malimasa /wa˧/ and Na /ʁwa˧/ "left side", which Li compares to Tibetan g.yon and Burmese way.
  8. ^ Any affricate or fricative.

Reflexes of consonants

Naish features up to five series of stop corresponences: aspirated, voiceless, voiced, prenasalized voiced, and prenasalized voiceless.

Naish reflexes of Proto-Naish consonants
Class Proto-Naish Naxi Na Laze
Labial stops pʰ pʰ pʰ pʰ
p p p p
b b b b
mb mb b b
mp p b b
Coronal stops tʰ tʰ tʰ tʰ
t t t t
d d d d
nd nd d d
Velar stops kʰ kʰ kʰ (before *u, *o)
qʰ (before *a, *ɔ)
tɕʰ (before *i) 		kʰ (most places)
tsʰ (before *i)
k k k
q (before *a)
tɕ (before *i) 		k
q (before *a)
tɕ (before *i)
g g g g
ŋg ŋg g g
ŋk k ʁ (inconsistent)
Uvular stops qʰ kʰ qʰ qʰ
q ? q q
ɴq k ʁ ʁ
Sibilants s s s s
z z z z
ɕ ʂ ʂ ʂ
Affricates tsʰ tsʰ tsʰ tsʰ
ts ts ts ts
dz dz dz dz
ndz ndz dz dz
tɕʰ ʈʂʰ ʈʂʰ ʈʂʰ
tɕ k tɕ tɕ
Sonorants l l l l
l̥ h ɬ ɬ
m m m m
n n n n
ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ
j (lost) ʑ z

Reflexes of consonant clusters

Proto-Naish possessed many syllable-initial consonant clusters that were simplified in the Naish languages.

Jacques and Michaud

In the following chart, the following cover symbols are used:

  • S standing for *s or *r;
  • C standing for a stop.
  • N standing for a nasal consonant.
Reflexes of Proto-Naish consonant clusters
Cluster type Cluster Naxi Na Laze
C1C2 Cb b (lost) v
Ck ? h h
Cg g (lost) ?
S-initial Sp p p f
Sb b b (w)
Smb mb b v
St t t ʈ
sk k k f
Sŋk k ʁ (w)
Sl l ɬ ɬ
SN h h h
Sw h h f
Preserved Cw clusters kʰw kʰw qʰw kʰw
ŋw ? ŋw ŋw
Cr clusters pr p p p
pʰr pʰ pʰ pʰ
br b b b
kr k k ts
tr ʈʂ ʈʂ ʈʂ
gr g g ?
Cŋkr kj ʁ ʁ
Cŋgr ŋgj ʁ ʁ
R-initial rl l ɻ l
rt ? ʈ ?
rd nd ɖ ɖ
rts ʈʂ ʈʂ ts
rtsʰ ʈʂʰ ʈʂʰ tsʰ
rs ʂ ʂ s
Miscellaneous Cdz dz z z

Li

Li's own analysis of consonant clusters is as follows. He reconstructs two types of pre-initial: homorganic nasal pre-initials, and a non-homorganic pre-initial *C1 (C in the below table).

Proto-Naish consonant clusters (Li)
Class Cluster Naxi Malimasa Na
Lijiang Baoshan Bowan Ninglang Yongning
C-initial Cp p p p x χ p
Cb b b b w ʁ b
Cmb b b mb w ʁ b
Cd d d d l (lost) d
Cl x x ɬ
Cdz dʑ dʑ dz tɕʰ tɕʰ dʑ
Ck k k k (ɣ) ʁ ʁ
Cg k k g (lost) (lost) ʁ
Cng g ŋg ŋg (lost) ʁ ʁ
Cq k q k ɣ ʁ ʁ
NC- mb b mb mb (m)b b b
nd d nd nd (n)d d d
nl̥ l l l x ɬ ɬ
ŋg g ŋg ŋg (ŋ)g g g
ndz dz ndz ndz (n)dz dz dz
r-medial pr p p p p or tʂ p p
pʰr pʰ pʰ pʰ pʰ or tʂʰ pʰ or tʂʰ pʰ
br b b b b b b
mbr b mb mb b b b
tr t t t tʂ tʂ t
tʰr tʰ tʰ tʰ ʂ ʂ ʈ
ndr d nɖ nɖ ɖ ɖ dʐ
nr n ɳ n ɳ ɳ ɳ
tsr tʂ tʂ tʂ ts ts tʂ
tsʰr tʂʰ tʂʰ tʂʰ tsʰ tsʰ tʂʰ
sr ʂ ʂ ʂ s s ʂ
kr k or tɕ k or tɕ k or c tɕ or tʂ or k tɕ or k k
kʰr kʰ kʰ kʰ tɕʰ tɕʰ kʰ
gr g g g dʐ dʐ g
ŋgr g ŋg ŋg dʐ dʐ g
xr x x h ʂ ʂ x
Misc. lj l ɭ/ʐ l/ʐ

See also

References

  1. ^ Michaud, Alexis (2011). "The tones of numerals and numeral-plus-classifier phrases: on structural similarities between Naxi, Na and Laze". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 34: 1–26 – via Hyper Articles en Ligne.
  2. ^ He Jiren 和即仁 & Jiang Zhuyi 姜竹仪. 1985. Naxiyu Jianzhi 纳西语简志 (A Brief Description of the Naxi Language). Beijing 北京: Minzu Chubanshe 民族出版社.
  3. ^ Michaud, Alexis, He Limin & Zhong Yaoping. 2015. "Naxi / Naish." In Rint Sybesma, Wolfgang Behr, Zev Handel & C.T. James Huang (eds.), Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics. Leiden: Brill.
  4. ^ Jacques, Guillaume, and Alexis Michaud. 2011. "Approaching the historical phonology of three highly eroded Sino-Tibetan languages: Naxi, Na and Laze." Diachronica 28:468-498.
  5. ^ Li Zihe 李子鹤. 2015. 纳西语言研究回顾——兼论语言在文化研究中的基础地位 (A review of Naxi language studies, with a discussion of the fundamental role of cultural studies for linguistic research). 茶马古道研究期刊 4. 125–131.
  6. ^ Li, Zihe (2024). "Probing the Evolution History of Naish Languages with Reference to Tibetan, Burmese and Rgyalrong: The Open-Syllable Rhymes". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. doi:10.1353/jcl.2017.a942140. ISSN 2411-3484.
  7. ^ Li, Zihe (2024). "The origin and evolution of laterals in Proto-Naish". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 87 (1): 169–187. doi:10.1017/S0041977X22000775. ISSN 0041-977X.
  8. ^ Li, Zihe (2020). "原始納西語前冠音的來源與演變" [The Origin and Evolution of Pre-initials of Proto-Naish] (PDF). Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics. 12 (2): 201–228. doi:10.1163/2405478X-01202003. ISSN 1933-6985. Retrieved March 6, 2025.
  9. ^ Li, Zihe (2014). "THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF RETROFLEX FINALS IN NAISH LANGUAGES". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 42 (2): 309–329.
  10. ^ Li, Zihe (2022). "A Naish Historical Phonology: The Rhyme System".
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